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TaNaKh

Tanàkh is the Hebrew term תנך, or TNK, an acronym formed from the first letters of the three sections of the work:
תורה Torah (Law) נביאים, Nevi’îm (Prophets) and כתובים Ketuvîm, or the Writings.
These Scriptures are the foundation of the Abrahamic Religions.

Torah

Torah

nevi'im

Nevi'im

ketvim

Ketuvim

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Contents hide
Torah
Nevi’im
Synopsis
Former Prophets
Latter Prophets
The Twelve
Ketuvim
The poetic books
The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot)
Other books
Order of the books
Canonization

Torah

The Torah (Hebrew: תּוֹרָה, “Instruction, Teaching”), or the Pentateuch (for Christians), is the central reference of the religious Judaic tradition. It has a range of meanings. It can most specifically mean the first five Books of the twenty-four Books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the perushim (rabbinic commentaries). The term “Torah” means instruction and offers a way of life for those who follow it; it can mean the continued narrative from Book of Genesis to the end of the Tanakh, and it can even mean the totality of Jewish teaching, culture and practice. Common to all these meanings, Torah consists of the foundational narrative of Jewish peoplehood: their call into being by GOD, their trials and tribulations, and their Covenant with their GOD, which involves following a way of life embodied in a set of moral and religious obligations and civil laws (halakha).

In rabbinic literature the word “Torah” denotes both the five books (Hebrew: תורה שבכתב‎‎ “Torah that is written”) as well as the Oral Torah (תורה שבעל פה, “Torah that is spoken”). The Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash.

According to rabbinic tradition, all of the teachings found in the Torah, both written and oral, were given by GOD through Moses, a prophet, some of them at Mount Sinai and others at the Tabernacle, and all the teachings were written down by Moses, which resulted in the Torah we have today. According to a Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, and was used as the blueprint for Creation.

Traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a sofer on parchment in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the halachically-prescribed tune, in the presence of a congregation. Reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life.

Nevi’im

Nevi’im ( Hebrew: נְבִיאִים‎ Nəḇî’îm, lit. “spokespersons”, “Prophets”) is the second main division of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh), between the Torah (instruction) and Ketuvim (writings). The Nevi’im are divided into two groups. The Former Prophets (Hebrew: נביאים ראשונים‎ Nevi’im Rishonim) consists of the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings; while the Latter Prophets (Hebrew: נביאים אחרונים‎ Nevi’im Aharonim) include the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and The Twelve minor prophets.

Synopsis

In Judaism, Samuel and Kings are each counted as one book. In addition, twelve relatively short prophetic books are counted as one in a single collection called Trei Asar or “The Twelve Minor Prophets”. The Jewish tradition thus counts a total of eight books in Nevi’im out of a total of 24 books in the entire Tanakh. In the Jewish liturgy, selections from the books of Nevi’im known as the Haftarah are read publicly in the synagogue after the reading of the Torah on each Shabbat, as well as on Jewish festivals and fast days. The Book of Daniel is part of the Writings, or Ketuvim, in the Tanakh.

Former Prophets

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, 1st & 2nd Samuel, 1st & 2nd Kings. They contain historical narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:

  1. Joshua’s conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book of Joshua),
  2. the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the Book of Judges),
  3. the people’s request to GOD to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies (in the books of 1st & 2nd Samuel)
  4. the possession of the land under the divinely-appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (1st and 2nd Kings)

Joshua The Book of Joshua (Yehoshua יהושע) contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua. After Moses’ death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses’ successor, receives from GOD the command to cross the Jordan. In execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge given to Moses to help their brethren.
The book essentially consists of three parts:

  1. The history of the conquest of the land (1–12).
  2. The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of refuge, the provision for the Levites (13–22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes.
  3. The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24).

Judges The Book of Judges (Shoftim שופטים) consists of three distinct parts:

  1. The Introduction (1:1–3:10 and 3:12) giving a summary of the book of Joshua.
  2. The Main Text (3:11–16:31), discussing the five Great Judges, Abimelech (Judges), and providing glosses for a few minor Judges.
  3. The Appendices (17:1–21:25), giving two stories set in the time of the Judges, but not discussing the Judges themselves.

Samuel The Books of Samuel (Shmu’el שמואל) consists of five parts:

  • The period of GOD’s rejection of Eli, Samuel’s birth, and subsequent judgment (1 Samuel 1:1–7:17).
  • The period of the life of Saul prior to meeting David (1 Samuel 8:1–15:35).
  • The period of Saul’s interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1 – 2 Samuel 1:27).
  • The period of David’s reign and the rebellions he suffers (2 Samuel 2:1–20:22).
  • An appendix of material concerning David in no particular order, and out of sequence with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 22:1–24:25).

A conclusion of sorts appears at 1 Kings 1-2, concerning Solomon enacting a final revenge on those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style. While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in Chronicles, it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2–12:29) containing an account of the matter of Bathsheba is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20.

Kings The Books of Kings (Melakhim מלכים) contains accounts of the kings of the ancient Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah, and the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the accession of Solomon until the subjugation of the kingdom by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians.

Latter Prophets

The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the Major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel) and the Twelve Minor Prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi) collected into a single book.

Isaiah The 66 chapters of Isaiah (Yeshayahu [ישעיהו]) consist primarily of prophecies of the judgments awaiting nations that are persecuting Judah. These nations include Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Syria, Israel (the northern kingdom), Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and Phoenicia. The prophecies concerning them can be summarized as saying that GOD is the GOD of the whole earth, and that nations which think of themselves as secure in their own power might well be conquered by other nations, at GOD’s command.
Chapter 6 describes Isaiah’s call to be a prophet of GOD. Chapters 36–39 provide historical material about King Hezekiah and his triumph of faith in GOD. Chapters 24–35, while too complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with prophecies of a Messiah, a person anointed or given power by GOD, and of the Messiah’s kingdom, where justice and righteousness will reign. This section is seen by Jews as describing an actual king, a descendant of their great king, David, who will make Judah a great kingdom and Jerusalem a truly holy city.

The prophecy continues with what some scholars have called “The Book of Comfort” which begins in chapter 40 and completes the writing. In the first eight chapters of this book of comfort, Isaiah prophesies the deliverance of the Jews from the hands of the Babylonians and restoration of Israel as a unified nation in the land promised to them by GOD. Isaiah reaffirms that the Jews are indeed the chosen people of GOD in chapter 44 and that Hashem is the only GOD for the Jews (and only the GOD of the Jews) as he will show his power over the gods of Babylon in due time in chapter 46. In chapter 45:1 the Persian ruler Cyrus is named as the messiah who will overthrow the Babylonians and allow the return of Israel to their original land. The remaining chapters of the book contain prophecies of the future glory of Zion under the rule of a righteous servant (52 & 54). Chapter 53 contains a very poetic prophecy about this servant which is generally considered by Christians to refer to the crucifixion of Jesus, though Jews generally interpret it as a reference to GOD’s people. Although there is still the mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 & 66), the book ends with a message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his righteous subjects living in the Lord’s kingdom on earth.

Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah (Yirmiyahu [ירמיהו]) can be divided into twenty-three subsections, and its contents organized into five sub-sections or ‘books’.

  1. The introduction, ch. 1.
  2. Scorn for the sins of Israel, consisting of seven sections, (1.) ch. 2; (2.) ch. 3–6; (3.) ch. 7–10; (4.) ch. 11–13; (5.) ch. 14–17:18; (6.) ch. 17:19–ch. 20; (7.) ch. 21–24.
  3. A general review of all nations, foreseeing their destruction, in two sections, (1.) ch. 46–49; (2.) ch. 25; with an historical appendix of three sections, (1.) ch. 26; (2.) ch. 27; (3.) ch. 28, 29.
  4. Two sections picturing the hopes of better times, (1.) ch. 30, 31; (2.) ch. 32,33; to which is added an historical appendix in three sections, (1.) ch. 34:1–7; (2.) ch. 34:8-22; (3.) ch. 35.
  5. The conclusion, in two sections, (1.) ch. 36; (2.) ch. 45.

In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is supposed to have added three sections, viz., ch. 37–39; 40–43; and 44. The main Messianic prophecies are found in 23:1–8; 31:31–40; and 33:14–26.

Jeremiah’s prophecies are noted for the frequent repetitions found in them of the same words, phrases, and imagery. They cover the period of about 30 years. They are not in chronological order. Modern scholars do not believe they have reliable theories as to when, where, and how the text was edited into its present form.

Ezekiel The Book of Ezekiel (Yehezq’el [יחזקאל]) contains three distinct sections.

  1. Judgment on Israel – Ezekiel makes a series of denunciations against his fellow Judeans (3:22–24), warning them of the certain destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of the false prophets (4:1–3). The symbolic acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in Chapters 4 and 5, show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See, for example, Exodus 22:30; Deuteronomy 14:21; Leviticus 5:2; 7:18,24; 17:15; 19:7; 22:8)
  2. Prophecies against various neighboring nations: against the Ammonites ( Ezek. 25:1–7), the Moabites ( 25:8–11), the Edomites (25:12–14), the Philistines (25:15–17), Tyre and Sidon (26–28), and against Egypt (29-32).
  3. Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II: the triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth (Ezek. 33–39); Messianic times, and the establishment and prosperity of the Kingdom of GOD (40–48).

The Twelve

The Twelve are:

  1. Hosea or Hoshea [הושע]
  2. Joel or Yo’el [יואל]
  3. Amos [עמוס]
  4. Obadiah or Ovadyah [עובדיה]
  5. Jonah or Yonah [יונה]
  6. Micah or Mikhah [מיכה]
  7. Nahum or Nachum [נחום]
  8. Habakkuk or Habaquq [חבקוק]
  9. Zephaniah or Tsefania [צפניה]
  10. Haggai or Haggai [חגי]
  11. Zechariah Zekharia [זכריה]
  12. Malachi or Malakhi [מלאכי]

Ketuvim

K’tuvim or Ketuvim (Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים‎‎ Kəṯûḇîm, “writings”) is the third and final section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), after Torah (instruction) and Nevi’im (prophets). In English translations of the Hebrew Bible, this section is usually entitled “Writings”. Another name used for this section is Hagiographa.

The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under divine inspiration, but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.

Found among the Writings within the Hebrew scriptures, I and II Chronicles form one book, along with Ezra and Nehemiah which form a single unit entitled “Ezra–Nehemiah”. (In citations by chapter and verse numbers, however, the Hebrew equivalents of “Nehemiah”, “I Chronicles” and “II Chronicles” are used, as the system of chapter division was imported from Christian usage.) Collectively, eleven books are included in the Ketuvim.

The poetic books

In masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ”ת, which is also the Hebrew for “truth”).

These three books are also the only ones in the Hebrew Bible with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot)

The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as “authoritative” in the Jewish canon. These scrolls are traditionally read over the course of the year in many Jewish communities. The list below presents them in the order they are read in the synagogue on holidays, beginning with the Song of Solomon on Passover.

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:

  • The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
  • Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.
  • These two also describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).

Order of the books

The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.

The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)

The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)

  • Shīr Hashīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשִׁירִים (Passover)
  • Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Shābhû‘ôth)
  • Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [also called Kinnot in Hebrew]
  • Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth)
  • Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Pûrîm)

Other Books

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b–15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.

In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.

Canonization

The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as Biblical canon, it is said that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty, while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.

While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, Michael Coogan says that the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century CE. According to T. Henshaw, as early as 132 BCE some references suggesting that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, though it lacked a formal title. Jacob Neusner says something different, he argues that the notion of a biblical canon was not prominent in 2nd-century Rabbinic Judaism or even later.

Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which “… no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable…”;Michael Barber, however, avers that Josephus’ canon is “not identical to that of the modern Hebrew Bible”.For a long time, following this date, the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.

 

Useful links:
Bibbia Ebraico-Inglese Interlineare (VT) scriptures4all.org
Bibbia Ebraico-Inglese chabad.org
Completa Collezione dei Testi Ebraici safaria.org