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The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic religions of West Asian origin that emphasize and trace their common origin to Abraham (in Hebrew “Avraham” אַבְרָהָם, “Father of many”; in Arabic “Ibrahim” ابراهيم), recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him. They constitute one of the major divisions in the comparative study of religion, alongside Indian and East Asian religions.
At the beginning of the 21st century, it was estimated that 54% of the world’s population (3.8 billion people) considered themselves adherents of the Abrahamic religions, about 30% adhered to other religions, and 16% to no organized religion.
The principal Abrahamic religions, in chronological order of foundation, are: Judaism (1st millennium BCE), Christianity (1st century CE), Islam (7th century CE), and the Bahá’í Faith (19th century CE). However, the Abrahamic religions also include: Rastafarianism, Samaritanism, Druzism, Mandaeism, and the Bábí Faith.
Among the common points of connection between the Abrahamic religions, in addition to their shared descent from Abraham, is the “Golden Rule,” also called the “Ethics of Reciprocity,” which forms an essential basis for the modern concept of human rights:
Judaism
Rabbi Hillel (Shabbat 31a): “Do not do to others what you would not want done to you.”
Christianity
Jesus (Mt 7:12; Lk 6:31): “Do to others what you would have them do to you.”
Islam
Muhammad (40 Hadith of an-Nawawi 13): “None of you is a true believer until he desires for his brother what he desires for himself.”
Etymology
The Abrahamic religions originate from a single spiritual Source. Christians refer to Abraham as a “father in faith,” and there exists an Islamic religious term, Millat Ibrahim (the faith of Ibrahim), indicating that Islam sees itself as connected to the practices and traditions of Abraham. Jewish tradition, for its part, claims descent from Abraham, and its adherents follow his practices and ideals as the first of the three spiritual “fathers” or biblical Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. All Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham.
Abraham is presented in the Torah as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac, born to Sarah according to the promise made in Genesis (Gen 17:16).
The sacred text of Christianity is the Christian Bible, whose first part, the Old Testament, derives from the Hebrew Bible, leading to similar claims of ancestry as mentioned above, although most Christians are Gentiles who consider themselves grafted into the family tree under the New Covenant (see the significance of Abraham for Christians).
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad, as an Arab, is descended from Abraham’s son Ishmael. Jewish tradition likewise identifies the descendants of Ishmael, the Ishmaelites, with the Arabs, while the descendants of Isaac through Jacob—later called Israel—are the Israelites.
The Báb, regarded by Bahá’ís as a precursor to Bahá’u’lláh, was a Sayyid, that is, a direct descendant of Muhammad, and thus traced his ancestry back to Ishmael, son of Abraham. Tradition also holds that Bahá’u’lláh descended from Abraham through his third wife, Keturah.
Adam Dodds argues that the term “Abrahamic faiths,” although useful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that becomes problematic upon closer examination. While there are shared elements among the religions, their common ancestry is, to a large extent, peripheral to their respective foundational doctrines and may obscure crucial differences. For example, the Christian beliefs in the Incarnation, the Trinity, and the Resurrection of Jesus are not accepted by either Judaism or Islam (see, for example, the Islamic view of Jesus’ death). There are central beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as strict monotheism and adherence to Divine Law), just as there are central beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Bahá’í Faith that are not shared by Judaism (such as, respectively, the prophetic and messianic status attributed to Jesus).
Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob, grandson of Abraham. It upholds a strictly unitary conception of GOD, and the central sacred text for almost all its branches is the Masoretic Text, interpreted in light of the Oral Torah. Between the 19th and 20th centuries, Judaism developed several principal movements, among which the most significant are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform.
Christianity began as a sect within Judaism in the Mediterranean basin during the 1st century CE, eventually evolving into a distinct religion—the Christian Church—with its own beliefs and practices. Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, regarded by the vast majority of denominations as divine, one of the Persons of the Triune GOD. The Christian biblical canon is generally considered the ultimate authority, together with Sacred Tradition in certain confessions (such as Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy). Over the centuries, Christianity divided into three major branches (Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant), in addition to dozens of significant denominations and hundreds of smaller groups.
Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century CE, with a rigorously unitary view of GOD. Muslims regard the Qur’an as the supreme authority, revealed and explained through the teaching and practice of a central yet non-divine prophet, Muhammad. Islamic faith holds that all Prophets and Messengers, from Adam to the final Messenger (Muhammad), conveyed the same principles of Islamic monotheism. Shortly after its founding, Islam split into two main branches (Sunni and Shi‘a), each of which today encompasses several schools and movements.
Bábism (Persian: بابیه, Babiyye; Arabic: بيانة, Bayání), also known as the Bayání Faith, is a monotheistic religion that professes belief in one incorporeal, unknown, and incomprehensible GOD, who manifests His will through an unending series of theophanies called Manifestations of GOD (Arabic: ظهور الله). It is an extremely small religion, with no more than a few thousand adherents according to current estimates, most of whom are concentrated in Iran. It was founded by ‘Ali Muhammad Shirazi, who assumed the title of Báb (“the Gate”), from which the religion takes its name, believing himself to be the gate to the Twelfth Imam. During his ministry, however, his titles and claims evolved as he progressively outlined his teachings.
Founded in 1844, Bábism flourished in Persia until 1852, after which it continued in exile in the Ottoman Empire, particularly in Cyprus, as well as underground. An anomaly among Islamic messianic movements, the Bábí movement marked a break with Islam, inaugurating a new religious system with its own laws, teachings, and practices. Although violently opposed by both religious and governmental authorities, it ultimately led to the founding of the Bahá’í Faith, whose followers regard the religion established by the Báb as a forerunner of their own.
The Bahá’í Faith, dating to the late 19th century, is a new religious movement that has sometimes been classified as Abrahamic by scholars in various fields. Bahá’u’lláh (1817–1892), its founder, affirms the supreme religious station of Manifestation of GOD for Abraham and, more broadly, for the prophets mentioned in the other Abrahamic religions, and claims descent from Abraham through Keturah and Sarah. Additionally, Bahá’ís recall that Bahá’u’lláh lost a son, Mírzá Mihdí; while imprisoned, Bahá’u’lláh commemorated his son, linking the subsequent easing of restrictions to the young man’s dying prayer and comparing the event to the intended sacrifice of Abraham’s son.
The religion shares many affinities with Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It emphasizes monotheism and belief in one eternal and transcendent GOD. It regards the founders of the major religions as Manifestations of GOD, who bring revelation through a series of progressive interventions in human history, each preparing the way for the next. There is no definitive list of Manifestations of GOD, but Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá referred to several figures, including individuals generally not recognized by other Abrahamic religions, such as Krishna, Zoroaster, and Buddha, extending the principle to other cultures as well.
The Druze Faith, or Druzism, is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of prominent Islamic figures such as Hamza ibn ‘Ali ibn Ahmad and al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, as well as Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Hamza ibn ‘Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the principal author of their manuscripts. Jethro of Midian is regarded as an ancestor of the Druze, who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet. The Epistles of Wisdom constitute the foundational text of the Druze faith.
The Druze faith incorporates elements of Islamic Ismailism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, Christianity, Hinduism, and other philosophies and beliefs, forming a distinct and esoteric theology known for its symbolic interpretation of sacred texts and its emphasis on intellect and truthfulness. The Druze believe in theophany and in reincarnation or transmigration of the soul. At the end of the cycle of rebirth, achieved through successive reincarnations, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind (Al-‘Aql al-Kullī). In the Druze faith, Jesus is considered one of the most important prophets of GOD.
The Druze Faith is often classified as a branch of Isma‘ili Shi‘a Islam. Although it originated from Ismaili Islam, the Druze do not identify as Muslims and do not accept the Five Pillars of Islam.
The unifying characteristic of the Abrahamic religions is their acceptance of the tradition that GOD revealed Himself to the patriarch Abraham. All are monotheistic and conceive of GOD as a transcendent Creator and the source of moral law. Their sacred texts feature many of the same figures, events, and places, though often presented with differing roles, perspectives, and meanings. Believers who acknowledge these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to adopt a more positive attitude toward other Abrahamic communities.
In these religions, the individual, GOD, and nature are clearly distinguished from one another. They believe in a judging, paternal, fully transcendent and external GOD, to whom both the individual and nature are subordinate. Salvation or transcendence is not primarily attained through meditation, contemplation of the natural world, or philosophical speculation, but rather by seeking to please GOD or conform to His will (such as obedience to His commandments or law), viewing divine revelation as coming from outside the self, nature, and custom. Moreover, in this worldview, not only is humanity not part of nature in an essential sense, but nature and the Earth are subordinate to humanity, which is explicitly charged with “ruling over” and “subduing” the Earth.
Monotheism
All Abrahamic religions affirm that they are monotheistic, worshiping one exclusive GOD, though known by different names. All believe that GOD creates, is one, governs, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives. However, although Christianity does not profess belief in three gods—but rather in three Persons or hypostases united in one essence—the doctrine of the Trinity, which is fundamental to the vast majority of Christian denominations, stands in tension with Jewish, Islamic, and Bahá’í conceptions of monotheism. Since the concept of the Trinity is not compatible with tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of divine unity, Islam variously regards Christianity as a form of polytheism or idolatry.
Jesus (Arabic: ‘Isa among Muslims and Yasu among Arab Christians) is revered by Christianity, Islam, and the Bahá’í Faith, yet with profoundly different understandings: he is seen as the Savior by Christians (and, for most, as GOD incarnate), as a Prophet of Islam by Muslims, and as the Messiah and a Manifestation of GOD (though not GOD incarnate) by Bahá’ís. However, the worship of Jesus or the attribution of partners to GOD (known as shirk in Islam and shituf in Judaism) is generally regarded as idolatry by Islam and Judaism, and as erroneous by the Bahá’ís. The incarnation of GOD in human form is likewise considered doctrinal error by Judaism, Islam, and the Bahá’í Faith.
Theological Continuity
All Abrahamic religions affirm the existence of one eternal GOD who created the universe, governs history, sends prophetic and angelic messengers, and reveals His will through inspired Scriptures. They also affirm that obedience to this Creator GOD is to be lived out historically, and that one day GOD will intervene unilaterally in human history on the Day of Judgment.
Importance of Jerusalem
Jerusalem is regarded as the holiest city in Judaism. Its origins date to 1004 BCE, when, according to biblical tradition, David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah. Since the Hebrew Bible situates the sacrifice of Isaac on Mount Moriah, the importance of the site for Jews predates even these events. Jews pray three times daily facing Jerusalem, including in their supplications a plea for the restoration and rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple). The Passover liturgy concludes with the expression, “Next year in rebuilt Jerusalem,” and the city is recalled in the blessing after meals. Jerusalem has served as the capital of five of the six Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE, with the exception of the Khazar State. Since approximately 1852, it has had a Jewish majority that continues to the present day.
Jerusalem was also an early center of Christianity. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since antiquity. According to the New Testament, Jesus was presented at the Temple as a child, preached and performed healings there, drove the money changers from the Temple, celebrated the Last Supper, was arrested in Gethsemane, tried, crucified at Golgotha, buried (traditionally at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and there occurred the Resurrection, the Ascension, and the promise of his return.
For Islam, Jerusalem—the city of David and of Christ—is the third holiest city after Mecca and Medina (although it is not explicitly mentioned by name in the Qur’an). The al-Aqsa Mosque (“the farthest mosque”), referenced in Surah al-Isra, is traditionally identified with Jerusalem. Early Muslims prayed facing al-Aqsa (it was the qibla for thirteen years); later, the direction of prayer was changed toward the Ka‘ba in accordance with divine command.
For the Jews
For Jews, Abraham (together with his wife Sarah) is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. GOD promised him: “I will make of you a great nation and I will bless you.” With Abraham, GOD established an “everlasting covenant throughout the generations.” This covenant makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Converts, by entering into the covenant, are likewise regarded as sons and daughters of Abraham (and Sarah).
Abraham is venerated as Avraham Avinu (“Abraham our father”), to whom GOD made numerous promises, including that of countless descendants and possession of the land of Canaan. According to Jewish tradition, he was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational reflection.
For Christians
Christians view Abraham as an eminent model of faith and a spiritual—along with genealogical—ancestor of Jesus, the Son of GOD through whom all the families of the earth would be blessed. In Christianity, Abraham is above all a spiritual forefather: the Abrahamic covenant is reinterpreted in light of faith in Christ rather than biological descent. Abraham’s obedience in offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of GOD’s offering of His Son.
Many Christian commentators interpret the promises made to Abraham as fulfilled in Christianity, sometimes in place of Judaism (supersessionism), arguing that those who have faith are the true children of Abraham. In Pauline theology in particular, all who believe are considered spiritual descendants of Abraham and “children of GOD.”
For Muslims
For Muslims, Abraham (Ibrahim) is a prophet and messenger of GOD in the line extending from Adam to Muhammad. He received revelations and, together with his son Ishmael, raised the foundations of the House (the Ka‘ba). Islam regards him as one of the first Muslims, the first monotheist in a world that had lost monotheism. He is called “Our Father Abraham” and Ibrahim al-Hanif (“Abraham the Monotheist”). Islam holds that the son intended for sacrifice was Ishmael, not Isaac. Abraham is also commemorated in several rites of the annual pilgrimage (Hajj).
Judaism
One of Judaism’s foundational texts is the Tanakh, which recounts the relationship between the Israelites and GOD from their earliest history until the construction of the Second Temple (circa 535 BCE). Abraham is recognized as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. One of his great-grandsons was Judah, from whom the religion ultimately derives its name.
After conquest and exile, some members of the Kingdom of Judah returned to Israel and established an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty. They later became a client kingdom of Rome, which conquered the territory and dispersed its inhabitants. From the 2nd to the 6th centuries, Jews composed the Talmud, a foundational work of legal rulings and biblical interpretation, which, together with the Tanakh, is a central text of Judaism.
Christianity
Christianity arose in the 1st century as a movement within Judaism led by Jesus. His disciples recognized him as the Messiah and, after his crucifixion, as GOD incarnate, risen from the dead and destined to return to judge the living and the dead and establish the eternal Kingdom of GOD. Within a few decades, the movement separated from Judaism.
After alternating periods of persecution and tolerance, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in 380. Attempts at unity ultimately failed with the East–West Schism (1054), and in the 16th century the Protestant Reformation further multiplied Christian confessions.
Islam
Islam is founded upon the teachings of the Qur’an. While it considers Muhammad the “Seal of the Prophets,” it teaches that all previous prophets preached Islam, thereby affirming continuity with Jewish and Christian prophets. The Qur’an is presented as the direct revelation of Allah, while earlier Scriptures are regarded as having been altered over time.
Islam means “submission” (to GOD) and is a universal religion, open to all. Like Judaism, it affirms a strictly unitary conception of GOD (tawhid). After the death of Muhammad, disputes over leadership of the community led to the division between Sunnis and Shi‘a, the two principal branches of Islam.
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In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of a figure (the Messiah) who will herald the end times and establish the Kingdom of GOD on earth (messianic prophecy). Judaism awaits the coming of the Messiah, who is not regarded as “GOD,” but as a mortal man who, by virtue of his holiness, is worthy of that title. His appearance does not mark the end of history, but rather the beginning of the world to come.
Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ, just as Islam awaits both the return of Jesus (to complete his earthly life and die) and the coming of the Mahdi (for Sunnis in his first appearance, and for Twelver Shi‘a as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi).
Most Abrahamic religions agree in holding that the human being is composed of body and soul: the body dies, while the soul is capable of surviving beyond physical death, retaining the essence of the person. GOD will judge the life of each individual on the Day of Judgment. In more orthodox Judaism, views of the afterlife (“the World to Come”) are quite diverse and place greater emphasis on this present life and on living in holiness to please GOD, rather than on future reward.
Christianity presents more developed and defined teachings concerning the end times and the afterlife. Many Christian perspectives include distinct abodes for the dead, as described in Dante’s Divine Comedy (Heaven, Hell, Limbo, Purgatory), or visions of universal reconciliation, based on the belief that all souls are created in the image of GOD.
In Islam, GOD (ALLAH in Arabic) is described as “the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful” (Qur’an 1:2 and at the beginning of nearly every surah). Nevertheless, Islam also teaches the reality of Hell for those who disobey GOD and commit grave sins, while those who obey and submit to the divine Will and Law will be rewarded with a place in Paradise. Sinners are punished with fire, but many other forms of punishment are described as well, depending on the sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels.
Those who worship and remember GOD are promised an eternal abode in a Paradise that is both physical and spiritual. Heaven is divided into eight levels, and the highest is reserved for the most virtuous, the prophets, and those who died fighting for ALLAH (martyrs).
Through sincere repentance to GOD, many sins may be forgiven, provided they are not repeated, since GOD is supremely merciful. Moreover, those who believe in GOD but have led sinful lives may be punished for a time and then eventually admitted into Paradise. However, if a person dies in a state of shirk (that is, associating partners with GOD in any way, such as attributing equals to Him or denying Him), this is not forgivable: such individuals will remain in Hell forever. Once admitted into Paradise, however, one will abide there eternally.
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