Mishnah and Talmud
The Mishnah (in Hebrew: מִשְׁנָה, “study by repetition”, from the verb שָׁנָה, shanah, meaning “to study and review” or “secondary”) is the first major written compilation of Jewish oral traditions, known as the “Oral Torah.” The Mishnah consists of six orders (sedarim, singular seder סֶדֶר), each containing between 7 and 12 tractates (masechtot, singular masechet מסכת; lit. “web”), totaling 63 tractates, further divided into chapters and paragraphs.
Due to its division into six orders, the Mishnah is sometimes called “Shas,” an acronym for “Shisha Sedarim” (שִׁשָּׁה סְדָרִים), meaning “the six orders.” However, this term is more often used to refer to the entire Talmud.
The Six Orders of the Mishnah
Zeraim (“Seeds”): Addresses prayer, blessings, tithes, and agricultural laws (11 tractates).
Moed (“Festivals”): Covers the laws of the Sabbath and Jewish festivals (12 tractates).
Nashim (“Women”): Concerns marriage, divorce, vows, and the Nazirite vow (7 tractates).
Nezikin (“Damages”): Discusses civil and criminal law, court procedures, and oaths (10 tractates).
Kodashim (“Holy Things”): Relates to sacrificial rites, the Temple, and dietary laws (11 tractates).
Tehorot (“Purities”): Deals with laws of purity and impurity, including food, bodily purity, and impurity from the dead (12 tractates).
The Babylonian Talmud (Hagigah 14a) states that there were originally six hundred or seven hundred orders of the Mishnah. Hillel the Elder organized them into six orders to aid memorization. A tradition recounts that Ezra the Scribe memorized not only the 24 books of the Tanakh but also 60 esoteric books. While it is uncertain if this tradition refers to the Mishnah, there is reason to believe the Mishnah initially consisted of 60 tractates (the current 63 include later divisions such as Makkot and the three Bava tractates).
Content and Structure
| Order | Title | Meaning | Main Tractates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zeraim | Seeds | Prayer and agriculture | • Berakhot (“Blessings”) • Peah (“Corner”) • Demai (“Doubt”) • Kilaim (“Mixtures”) • Shevi’it (“Seventh”) • Terumot (“Offerings”) • Ma’aserot (“Tithes”) • Ma’aser Sheni (“Second Tithe”) • Challah (“Dough”) • Orlah (“Uncircumcision”) • Bikkurim (“First Fruits”) |
| Moed | Festivals | Sabbath and holidays | • Shabbat (“Sabbath”) • Eruvin (“Connections”) • Pesachim (“Passover”) • Shekalim (“Shekels”) • Yoma (“The Day”) • Succot (“Booths”) • Betzah (“Egg”) • Rosh Hashanah (“New Year”) • Taanit (“Fasting”) • Megillah (“Scroll”) • Moed Katan (“Minor Festival”) • Chagigah (“Festival Offering”) |
| Nashim | Women | Marriage and vows | • Yebamot (“Levirate Marriage”) • Ketubot (“Marriage Contracts”) • Nedarim (“Vows”) • Nazir (“Nazirite”) • Sotah (“Suspected Adulteress”) • Gittin (“Divorce Decrees”) • Kiddushin (“Betrothal”) |
| Nezikin | Damages | Civil and criminal law | • Bava Kamma (“First Gate”) • Bava Metzia (“Middle Gate”) • Bava Batra (“Last Gate”) • Sanhedrin (“Courts”) • Makkot (“Strikes”) • Shevuot (“Oaths”) • Eduyyot (“Testimonies”) • Avodah Zarah (“Idolatry”) • Pirkei Avot (“Chapters of the Fathers”) • Horayot (“Decisions”) |
| Kodashim | Holy Things | Sacrificial rites | • Zevachim (“Sacrifices”) • Menachot (“Meal Offerings”) • Chullin (“Profane Things”) • Bechorot (“Firstborn”) • Arachin (“Valuations”) • Temurah (“Substitution”) • Keritot (“Excisions”) • Me’ilah (“Sacrilege”) • Tamid (“Daily Offering”) • Middot (“Measurements”) • Kinnim (“Bird Nests”) |
| Tehorot | Purities | Purity and impurity | • Kelim (“Vessels”) • Ohalot (“Tents”) • Negaim (“Plagues”) • Parah (“Red Heifer”) • Teharot (“Pure Things”) • Mikvaot (“Immersions”) • Niddah (“Menstrual Impurity”) • Machshirim (“Preparations”) • Zavim (“Discharges”) • Tebul Yom (“Daytime Immersion”) • Yadayim (“Hands”) • Uktzim (“Stems”) |
Mishnah, Gemara, and Talmud
Rabbinic commentaries on the Mishnah, developed over the following four centuries in the Land of Israel and Babylonia, were eventually compiled as Gemara. The texts combining the Mishnah and Gemara are known as the Talmud. There are two versions of the Talmud:
Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli), which is the most well-known and studied.
Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), compiled in the Land of Israel.
The Talmud is written primarily in Tannaitic Hebrew and Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. It contains discussions on topics ranging from Halakhah (Jewish law) to ethics, philosophy, history, customs, and more, forming the foundation of all Jewish legal codes.
History: The Transmission of the Oral Torah
The destruction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE (or 416 BCE according to Talmudic chronology) and the subsequent Babylonian exile presented a significant challenge to Jewish life. Without the sanctuary in Jerusalem, maintaining a distinct Jewish identity became crucial. The scribes (Soferim) took on the task of preserving and interpreting the Torah, founding the Great Assembly (Knesset HaGedolah) to ensure continuity.
After the return from Babylonian exile, figures such as Ezra the Scribe, along with the last three prophets (Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi), laid the groundwork for the transmission of the Oral Torah. This tradition was later carried forward by the Pharisees and their great academies (Yeshivot), culminating in the codification of the Mishnah under Rabbi Judah the Prince. Through meticulous preservation, the Oral Torah remained a living tradition, forming the backbone of Jewish law and practice for generations.